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	13	+= Pollen and spores =
	14	+
	15	+== Nature and occurence ==
	16	+
	17	+Pollen (pollen grains) and spores are microscopic products of plants, measuring between 5 and 100µm. Some pollen grains, such as those of corn, are larger. The material is collected by taking soil samples in places where one expects to find this material. During the analysis phase, in addition to pollen and spores, the specialist distinguishes a wide variety of other microfossils, ranging from soil fungi to single-celled endoparasites. These microfossils, including pollen and spores, are called palynomorphs. Palynology is the science that deals with these particles. In addition to the group of microfossils taken with palynological research, diatoms (diatoms) are valuable for archaeological research in a number of cases. Diatoms can be determined on the basis of lime skeletons. Pollen and spores are also present everywhere and in abundance today: in the air, in water, on and in the ground. Pollen and spores are found in archaeological context mainly in an uncharred form. The material is preserved under low-oxygen conditions in permanently wet environments. In addition, pollen is preserved under special conditions, for example, in mineralized manure (coprolites) and microenvironments in which pollen remains preserved occur, particularly in dry, acidic soils. Translated into sediments, these remains are best preserved in peat, lake deposits (gyttja) and clay. In sandy soils, pollen is preserved only in soils. In archaeological contexts, pollen and traces are found particularly in all kinds of soil traces that extend below the permanent level of the groundwater, such as ditches, wells, pits, humus packages and field layers. This category of material is also preserved in, for example, ash decks - located above the groundwater table.
	18	+
	19	+== Research ==
	20	+
	21	+=== Landscape and environment ===
	22	+
	23	+Palynological research is eminently applicable for obtaining information about landscape and environment and their developments over time. It is recommended that palynological research be combined with physical geographic and soil research, so that a precise layout of the landscape in certain successive periods is possible. The sample locations for landscape and environmental research are preferably outside the settlement and thus often outside the excavation. Undisturbed soils and sediments are prerequisites for good results.
	24	+
	25	+=== Agriculture ===
	26	+
	27	+An example for this research topic is palynological research on ash decks. This research provides information about the crops grown and the organic fertilizers applied. Ash decks are generally well above groundwater. Yet the soil conditions are such that the pollen is preserved. Pollen and traces of the plants that once stood in the field may also have been preserved in honorary loft traces. However, the preservation conditions here are less favorable and the likelihood that the pollen has been preserved is greatest in places where the fields were in a moist environment; for example, plow marks on peat that have been covered by sand or plow marks on sand that have been covered by peat or clay. Coprolites and (mineralized) manure from cattle, goats, sheep, for example, contain a lot of pollen. Analysis of these remains provides information about the food of these animals and/or the pastures where they walked.
	28	+
	29	+=== Food- and utilization plants ===
	30	+
	31	+The examination of botanical macro remains (seeds, fruits, etc.) is ideally suited to obtain information on food and use plants. Palynological research can provide additional information, especially about plants from which no seeds or fruits were eaten, but leaves, for example. Increasingly, this facet of pollen research is being conducted as part of archaeobotanical research. Since pollen is only preserved in its uncharred form, archaeological traces that have been in permanent contact with groundwater, such as fills of cesspools, wells and deep pits, are particularly eligible.
	32	+
	33	+= Botanical macro remains =
	34	+
	35	+== Nature and occurrence ==
	36	+
	37	+Botanical macro remains are defined as:
	38	+
	39	+* various parts of plants, such as seeds, fruits, stems, threshing residues, roots, tubers;
	40	+* Remains composed of plants, such as food remains (bread, porridge), caking in pots;
	41	+* imprints, particularly in pottery and hut clay. These are usually small remains (0.25 - 5 mm), which are hardly visible to the naked eye.
	42	+
	43	+Not only the size of the remains, but also the fact that they are surrounded by soil, means that they are usually not seen during fieldwork. Only a concentration of botanical material or remains larger than 5 mm, for example cherry pits or shell parts of hazelnuts, are recognizable in the field. Because these botanical macro remains are generally so small, it is common to take soil samples. A wide range of plant remains can be found in soil samples. Seeds, fruits, and charcoal are the most common plant remains. The possibilities for charcoal research are discussed elsewhere. In addition to the seeds and fruits already mentioned, plant remains that cannot be identified at first glance are regularly found in soil samples. These may be plant fibers, (charred) food remains or remains of roots and tubers. With the aid of a microscope (sometimes an electron microscope is needed) these remains can usually be identified. Also in caked layers in pots or tubs recognizable plant remains may be present, which may give insight into the origin of the caking (food or some craft process). Especially in pottery and hut loam impressions of plant remains can be easily recognized. The plant remains themselves have often disappeared. The impressions generally contain sufficient features for determination. For this component, consultation between the pottery specialist and the botanical specialist is recommended. Botanical macro remains occur in charred, uncharred, or mineralized form. In archaeological contexts, plant remains may be charred only under the influence of fire. In charred form, the material can be preserved in all types of archaeological traces. Charred remains, however, are fragile. The temperature at which the remains carbonized as well as various (post)depositional processes influence the quality of the carbonized material. In uncharred form the remains will be preserved especially under extremely dry or under oxygen-poor, wet conditions. In archaeological context (in the Netherlands) we are almost exclusively dealing with the second situation. This means that in archaeological traces that have been permanently under the influence of groundwater, uncharred plant remains may occur, for example in wells, cesspools, pits, embankments. The quality of the uncharred material is good when the tracks in which they ended up have been wet from the beginning of deposition. A poorer preservation is always related to the drying of the soil in which the remains were found. Plant remains mineralize when they come into contact with phosphates. The mineralization process preserves plant remains even in dry environments. The quality of mineralized remains is generally moderate to poor. In archaeobotanical research these remains play, with a few exceptions, a subordinate role. Occasionally, plant remains are preserved in the vicinity of metal.
	44	+
	45	+== Research ==
	46	+
	47	+Research on botanical macro remains provides valuable contributions about:
	48	+
	49	+* food and use plants
	50	+* agriculture (arable and livestock farming)
	51	+* landscape and environment
	52	+* trade and industry
	53	+
	54	+In addition, seeds and fruits in particular are ideally suited for 14C research because - unlike wood - this material was formed in a very short time, usually within one year.
	55	+
13	13	= Glass =
14	14
15	15	== Nature ==